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Wednesday, 19 October 2011

TOP PCB IPC Standards


           PCB STANDARDS IPC STANDARDS

IPC Standards, the results of industry consensus and collaboration, are respected throughout the whole world. Using this standards it allows manufactures, customers and suppliers to speak the same language. with these standards we can get good quality products and it can help to grow your business which adds new customers while satisfying your industry products.

These standards has some sections those are:

  1. Acceptance
  2. Cleaning
  3. Components
  4. General Materials
  5. Process Support
  6. Rework & Repair
  7. Solderability


Lets go and check PCB ASSEMBLY process

1. Acceptance


IPC-A-610E  Acceptability of Electronic Assemblies the most widely used acceptability document. It is the essential guide for all inspectors, operators and trainers. IPC-A-610 illustrates industry-accepted workmanship criteria for electronics assemblies.
Topics include:
  1. Component Orientation and Soldering Criteria for through-hole
  2. SMT and Discrete Wiring Assemblies
  3. Mechanical Assembly
  4. Cleaning, marking, coating and laminate requirements
  5. Lead-free
    IPC-A-610 now has a companion.IPC-HDBK-610 offers explanatory and tutorial information to help with the implementation of the requirements of IPC-A-610 versions B to C. IPC J-STD-001D  Requirements for Soldered Electrical and Electronic Assemblies, is the essential companion for IPC-A-610D. It contains comprehensive, critical details about processes, materials and testing methods for soldered assemblies.


    IPC-A-620  Requirements and Acceptance for Cable and Wire Harness Assemblies

    is the most comprehensive acceptability standard for cable and wire harness assembly industry.

    Other documents in this range include the desk reference manuals,IPC-DRM-PTH-DThrough-Hole Solder Joint Evaluation Training & Reference Guide and IPC-DRM-SMT-D, Surface Mount Joint Evaluation Training & Reference Guideare the ideal companions for even the most experienced engineer.

     Advanced
    Advanced assembly standards are aimed at more specific areas of manufacturing process. With in depth standards for areas such as flip chip, chip scale and BGA technology

    IPC-SM-784
     Guidelines for Chip-on-Board Technology Implementation, is the most popular standard from this section. It discusses chip types, board selection, design issues and thermal transfer methods for COB applications.

    J-STD-032  Performance Standard for BGA's, working along side IPC-7095 ensure you have the most up to date information on BGA's.

     Cleaning
    Still a major issue during the manufacturing process and still an area where there is much confusion. The standards in this section offer a wide variation of processes and solutions that cover many areas of cleaning in production.

    IPC-M-108Assembly Cleaning Guides and Handbooks is the complete guide to cleaning and is an amalgamation of 6 IPC standards to include all areas of cleaning from post solder solvent (IPC-SC-60) and post-solder aqueous (IPC-AC-65A) to the cleaning of PCB & assemblies (IPC-CH-65 ) and surface insulation (IPC-9201). All guides included in IPC-M-108 are available separately.

     Components

    The identification and handling of components is vital to ensure correct assembly and reliability.
    IPC-DRM-18  Component Identification Training & Reference Guide is a comprehensive guide to the most commonly used through-hole, SMT components and interconnections used in electronic assembly today.

    Other popular standards from this area include J-STD-033  Standard for handling, packing, shipping and Use of Moisture Reflow Sensitive SMD's and J-STD-020 ,Moisture/Sensitivity Classification for Plastic Integrated Circuit SMD'sare two standards which focus directly on the safe use of SMD's. For a complete guide to handling try IPC-M-109Components Handling Series which includes all the latest editions of IPC standards & guidelines related to packaging, handling, storing and testing.

     General
    This section includes the standards that are not otherwise categorised. These range from statistic process control and ISO 9000 requirements to SMT connectors and electrochemical migration.

    IPC-7525 , Stencil Design Guidelines provides information for the design and fabrication of stencils for solder paste and surface mount adhesive.

    IPC have created two documents that are an amalgamation of the most requested documents that relate to a particular area. These areIPC-M-103 Standards for Surface Mount Assemblies and IPC-M-104Standards for Printed Board Assembly.

     Materials
    Raw materials can seriously affect the quality and reliability of PCB's. IPC have produced a range of documents that enable companies to evaluate what is suitable for their requirements.

    J-STD-004A  Requirements for Soldering Fluxes is our most requested document and is a flux characterisation, quality control and procurement document. This is supported by IPC-TP-1090The Layman's Guide to Qualifying New Fluxes for MIL-STD-2000A or MT-0002.

    J-STD-006A Requirements for Electronic Grade Solder Alloys and Fluxed and Non-Fluxed Solid Solders for Electronic Soldering Applications has just been re-released with a new amendment, the most prominent change in Revision A is a new solder alloy nomenclature system.

    Others areas included are dialectic and conductive adhesives, soldering pastes and qualification & performance guides including IPC-SM-840C  which focuses on Permanent Solder Mask.

    Now the complete guides to conformal coating. IPC-CC-830BQualification and Performance of Electrical Insulating Compound for Printed Board Assemblies and IPC-HDBK-830Guidelines for Design, Selection and Application of Conformal Coatings provide all the information required to assist designers and users of conformal coatings in making informed decisions.

     Process Support
    The documents in this section are there to provide technical support to enable the highest quality to be reached.

    J-STD-001(see Acceptance at the top of this page) is the most common item. IPC-HDBK-001 Handbook and Guide to the Requirements of Soldered Electronic Assemblies to Supplement J-STD-001 offers explanatory and tutorial information to help with the implementation of requirements as indicated in J-STD-001C. Other documents that support J-STD-001C are IPC-TP-1114 The Layman's Guide to Qualifying a Process to J-STD-001C and IPC-TR-467 Supporting Data and Numerical Examples for J-STD-001C (Control of Fluxes).

    There are standards which focus on quality and reliability of SMT such as IPC-SM-785  Guidelines for Accelerated Reliability Testing of SMT AttachmentsIPC-S-816 SMT Process Guideline and Checklist and IPC-SM-780  Component Packaging and Interconnecting with Emphasis on Surface Mount.

    IPC have finally put an end to the confusion when calculating defect opportunities for benchmarking with the release of IPC-7912ACalculation of DPMO & Manufacturing Indices for Printed Board Assemblies. Working in conjunction with IPC-9261In-Process DPMO and Estimated Yields for PWA's. A guide to defect categorisation is provided that can serve as a base for summarising and reporting in-process defects when used with J-STD-001 and IPC-A-610. It can also be used to develop process step estimated yield.

     Rework and Repair







    This is one of our most popular documents. IPC-7711/72A  Rework and Repair Guide This is the ultimate guide and provides:
    1. Comprehensive Guides to rework, repair and modification
    2. Clear and detailed illustrations and tables
    3. Detailed analysis of proven techniques and methods
    4. Recommendations and troubleshooting
      They both run in conjunction with IPC-A-610, J-STD-001, IPC-A-600 and IPC-HDBK-001.

       Solderability



      This section mainly aims at testing and evaluation of the solderability of PCB's and their components.
      J-STD-002  focuses on components leads, terminations and wires where as J-STD-003  gives a more general view on tests for printed boards. Others give views on solderability and the effect of different finishes and surfaces such asIPC-TR-461 Solderability Evaluation of Thick and Thin Fused Coatingsand IPC-TR-462 Solderability Evaluation of Printed Boards with Protective Coatings over Long Term Storage.
      Consistency with soldering on a mass scale can be major cause for concern. IPC-7530The Definitive Guide for Temperature Profiling for Mass Soldering (Reflow & Wave) Processes, helps to reduce the chance of reliability failure by assuring metallurgical bonding of the solder alloy and the base metals to be soldered.

      TOP INDIA GREAT YOGA TYPES

      What comes into your mind when you hear the word Yoga?

      Well, if you think of women in seemingly impossible poses, then you may have an inkling of what Yoga is. But that's just it - an inkling. You've got a long way to go before fully understanding Yoga.

      Yoga is an ancient Indian body of knowledge that dates back more than 500" class. The word "Yoga" came from the Sanskrit word "yuj" which means "to unite or integrate." Yoga then is about the union of a person's own consciousness and the universal consciousness.

      Ancient Yogis had a belief that in order for man to be in harmony with himself and his environment, he has to integrate the body, the mind, and the spirit. For these three to be integrated, emotion, action, and intelligence must be in balance. The Yogis formulated a way to achieve and maintain this balance and it is done through exercise, breathing, and Meditation - the three main Yoga structures.

      In Yoga, the body is treated with care and respect for it is the primary instrument in man's work and growth. yoga exercises improve circulation, stimulate the abdominal organs, and put pressure on the glandular system of the body, which can generally result to better health.

      Breathing techniques were developed based on the concept that breath is the source of life. In Yoga, students gain breathing control as they slowly increase their breathing. By focusing on their breathing, they prepare their minds for the next step - Meditation.

      There is a general misconception that in Meditation, your mind has to go blank. It doesn't have to be so. In Meditation, students bring the activities of the mind into focus resulting in a 'quiet' mind. By designing physical poses and breathing techniques that develop awareness of our body yoga helps us focus and relieves us from our everyday stress.

      Six Branches of Yoga



      Hatha Yoga or Yoga of Postures


      It perhaps the path of Yoga you are most familiar with since this is the most popular branch of Yoga in the West. This branch of Yoga uses physical poses or Asana, Breathing Techniques or Pranayama, and Meditation to achieve better health, as well as spirituality. There are many styles within this path - Iyengar, Integral, Astanga, Kripalu, and Jiva Mukti to name a few.

      If what you want is a peaceful mind and a healthy body to go along with it, Hatha Yoga may just be the path for you.

      Bhakti Yoga or Yoga of Devotion



      Bhakti Yoga is the path most followed in India. This is the path of the heart and devotion. Yogis who practice this branch sees the "One" or the Divine in everyone and everything. Bhakti Yoga teaches a person to have devotion to the "One" or to Brahma by developing a person's love and acceptance for all things.


      Raja Yoga or Yoga of Self-Control


      Raja means "royal". This path is considered to be the King of Yoga and this may be due to the fact that most of its practitioners are members of religious and spiritual orders. Raja Yoga is based on the teachings of the Eight Limbs of Yoga found in the Yoga sutras. A Raja Yogi sees the self as central, and as such, respect to oneself and for all creation are vital to this path. They achieve self-respect by first learning to be masters of themselves. If you wish to learn discipline, then Raja Yoga would perfectly suit that need.



      Jnana Yoga or Yoga of the Mind


      Jnana Yoga is the path of Yoga that basically deals with the mind, and as such, it focuses on man's intelligence. Jnana Yogis consider wisdom and intellect as important and they aim to unify the two to surpass limitations. Since they wish to gain knowledge, they are open to other philosophies and religion for they believe that an open and rational mind is crucial in knowing the spirit.



      Karma Yoga or Yoga of Service


      Karma Yoga is the path of service for in this path, it is believed that your present situation is based on your past actions. So by doing selfless service now, you are choosing a future that is free from negativity and selfishness. Karma Yogis change their attitude towards the good and in the process, change their souls, which leads to a change in their destiny.



      Tantra Yoga or Yoga of Rituals




      Perhaps the most misunderstood of all the paths, Tantra Yoga is about using rituals to experience what is sacred. Although sex is a part of it, sex is not the whole of it since this path aims to find what is sacred in everything we do. Tantra Yogis must possess certain qualities like purity, humility, devotion, dedication to his Guru, cosmic love, and truthfulness among other things.

      There are still a lot of misconceptions about Yoga, for instance, Yoga being a religion. Yoga is not a religion. It is more of a set of techniques for us to find spirituality. In fact, Yoga is being practiced by a lot of people from different religions like Christians, Jewish, Buddhists, and Muslims.

      Another misconception is that Yoga is an exercise, a way for us to keep fit. It is partly true, but if you think that Yoga is just that then you are greatly mistaken. Yoga develops the body since a weak one is a hindrance to spiritual growth. It does not simply focus on the physical but on the mental and spiritual aspects as well.

      Yoga in Your Life
      You may ask, "Is Yoga for me?"

      Definitely, yes! Yoga is for anyone who is willing to learn its ways and ideas. It does not actually require any special equipment or clothing. What it requires is your will to have a healthier, stress-free self.

      You may first approach Yoga as a way to achieve a great body or to keep fit and that is perfectly alright. Yoga really does help in improving your health for stretching can tone your muscles and exercise your spine and your entire skeletal system.


      Do not just take advantage of what Yoga can offer. Yoga encourages you to reflect on yourself and to find your inner peace. It exercises not just your body but your mind as well. With a healthy body and mind, you're on your way to a more fulfilling life.



      TOP SHORTEST WOMEN'S IN THE WORLD

      GUINNESS RECORD SHORTEST WOMEN'S IN THE WORLD

      1.Pauline Musters (26 FEB 1876 -1 March 1895)


      Pauline Musters is, at 23 inches (58 cm) tall, recognised by the Guinness Book of Records as the shortest woman ever recorded. Born in Ossendrecht, The Netherlands on February 26, 1876, she died in New York City at the age of 19 from a combination of pneumonia and meningitis.

      2.Madge Bester (26 April 1963)





      Madge Bester  is believed to be the world's shortest living woman. From South Africa, she measures 2 ft 1.5 in (65 cm) in height which was measured in 1991. Bester has osteogenesis imperfecta, which is characterized by brittle bones, and uses a wheelchair. She has been a campaigner for disabled rights, holding a 1998 press conference on the issue accompanied by Lin Yih-Chih, the world's smallest man.Bester lives in a retirement village in Bloemfontein. Her mother Winnie, who died in 2001, also suffered from osteogenesis imperfecta and measured only 70 cm.



      3.Lucia Zarate (1864-1890)



      Lucia Zarate (1864 in San Carlos now Altamirano Mexico - 1890) is the first person to have been identified with Majewski Osteodysplastic Primordial Dwarfism Type II. She was entered into the Guinness World Records as the "lightest recorded adult", weighing 4.7 pounds (2.1 kg) at the age of 17. According to an 1894 article in Strand Magazine, Zarate achieved her full growth by the age of one year.

      4.Hatice Kocaman (1989)



      Saturday, July 17, 2010 Smallest woman - world record set by Hatice Kocaman KADIRLI, TURKEY -- Hatice Kocaman, 21, is just 72.5 centimeters tall and weighs only seven kilograms - setting the world record for the Smallest woman. Kocaman, who cannot grow further due to a bone disorder, said it would be great to be in World Record Books and that she wants everyone to know her and talk about her. Garrett and Emin Gorgun, the Turkey brand manager for Guinness World Records, visited Kocaman and her parents, Ibrahim and Hatun Kocaman, initiating the process of registering her claim. The “world’s smallest person” Guinness world record previously belonged to He Pingping from China, who was 74.61 centimeters tall when he died in March at the age of 21. Before his death, he appeared at events in Turkey with Sultan Köse, the Turkish man who is the tallest person in the world at two meters, 46.5 centimeters tall.  

      TOP SHORTEST MENS IN THE WORLD

      GUINNESS RECORD SHORTEST MEN'S IN THE WORLD



      1.Gul Mohammed ( 15 FEB 1957 - 1 OCT 1997 )





      Gul Mohammed  of New Delhi, India, according to The Guinness Book of World Records, was the shortest adult human being whose existence and height have been independently verified.On July 19, 1990, he was examined by Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, New Delhi, India and he stood 1 foot 10.4 inches (57 cm) tall and weighed 37.5 lbs (17.0 kg). He died on October 1, 1997, from respiratory complications and after a long struggle with asthma and bronchitis, acquired due to heavy smoking.

      2.Junrey Balawin ( 12 JUNE 1993 )





      Junrey Balawing, of Sindangan, Zamboanga del Norte, Philippines is the world's shortest living man according to the Guinness Book of World Records, measuring at 0.5993 m (1 ft 11 23 in). The declaration came during Balawing's 18th birthday celebration. Guinness World Records official said Balawing broke the record of Khagendra Thapa Magar of Nepal, who is 0.67 m (2 ft 2 13 in) tall.Balawing, the son of a poor blacksmith, lives in Sindangan, about 865 kilometers south of the capital Manila. Although he is documented as the shortest living man, he missed the title of shortest man in history, which is held by Gul Mohammed of India, who was 0.571 m (1 ft 10 25 in) tall and died on October 1, 1997.


      3.Younis Edwan ( 1971 )



      Younis Edwan  has claimed to be the world's shortest man at 65 cm (2 feet 1 inches), though has not been officially measured by Guinness World Records

      4.Istvan Toth - Potya ( 28 JULY 1891 -  6 FEB 1945 )



      István Tóth-Potya  was a Hungarian amateur football (soccer) player. He was a member of the Hungarian Olympic squad at the 1912 Summer Olympics. He was an unused reserve player for the duration of the games and did not play a match in the 1912 football tournament.For the Hungarian national team he played 19 games and scored 8 goals. He became a member of the Hungarian anti-fascist resistance following Hungary's invasion by Germany, helping several hundred people escape from Nazi custody and death. He was arrested by the Gestapo in late 1944 and executed in February 1945 by Hitler's Hungarian allies, Szálasi's Arrow Cross henchmen


      5.Khagendra Thapa Magar ( 14 OCT 1992 )



      Khagendra Thapa Magar son of Rup Bahadur and Dhana Maya Thapa Magar, was the shortest man in the world, measuring 0.67 m (2 ft 2 in). Formerly the shortest teenager in the world, Magar took the title of shortest man from Edward Nino Hernandez when he turned 18 on October 14, 2010. Magar is a primordial dwarf. He lost the title of "World's Shortest Man" on June 12, 2011, to Junrey Balawing of the Philippines.


       6.Lin Yü-chih ( 1972 )



      Lin Yü-chihis the former shortest man in the world according to Guinness World Records. He resides in Taipei, Taiwan, where he works as an author and social activist. His name has sometimes been misspelled as Lin Yih-chih. In May 2008 he appeared in the British Channel 4 documentary called "The World's Smallest Man and Me" hosted by Mark Dolan.

      7.Edward Niño Hernández ( 1986 )

        

      Edward Niño Hernández was officially named as the world's shortest living man on September 4, 2010, by the Guinness World Records. At 24 years of age Hernandez was 0.7 m (2 ft 3 12 in) tall and weighed 10 kg (22 lb). Hernandez lives in Bogotá, Colombia.


      8.He Pingping ( 13 JULY 1988 - 13 MARCH 2010)



      He Pingping  was, according to the Guinness World Records, the world's shortest man who was able to walk.He measured 74 cm (2 ft 5 in) tall, and was the third child of a family in Huade county, in the city of Ulanqab in northern China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. He had two sisters, both of whom developed at normal rates. According to his father, He Yun, at birth He Pingping was small enough to fit in the palm of his parents' hands. When it became apparent the child was growing very slowly, doctors diagnosed the cause as the bone deformity osteogenesis imperfect, which hinders normal bone growth and body height. He was a chain smoker.

      ALL TIME GREATEST SCIENTIST

      Indian scientists have played a stellar role in the development of India. In the short span of its post-independence history India has achieved several great scientific achievements. Indian scientists have proved their mettle in the face of international sanctions and have made India one of the scientific powerhouses of the world. Here is a brief profile of famous Indian scientists.

      C.V. Raman


      C.V. Raman is one of the most renowned scientists produced by India. His full name was Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman. For his pioneering work on scattering of light, C.V. Raman won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930. 

      Homi Bhabha


      Homi Bhabha, whose full name was Homi Jehnagir Bhabha, was a famous Indian atomic scientist. In Independent India, Homi Jehnagir Bhabha, with the support of Jawaharlal Nehru, laid the foundation of a scientific establishment and was responsible for the creation of two premier institutions, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and Bhabha Atomic Research Centre.

      Jagdish Chandra Bose



      Jagdish Chandra Bose was born on November 30, 1858 in Mymensingh (now in Bangladesh). His father Bhagabanchandra Bose was a Deputy Magistrate. Jagadish Chandra Bose had his early education in village school in Bengal medium.

      Meghnad Saha


      Meghnad Saha was born on October 6, 1893 in Sheoratali, a village in the District of Dacca, now in Bangladesh. He was the fifth child of his parents, Sri Jagannath Saha and Smt. Bhubaneshwari Devi. His father was a grocer in the village. Meghnad Saha had his early schooling in the primary school of the village.

      M. Visvesvaraya


      Sir M. Visvesvaraya was born on September 15, 1860 in Muddenahalli village in the Kolar district of the erstwhile princely state of Mysore (present day Karnataka). His father Srinivasa Sastry was a Sanskrit scholar and Ayurvedic practitioner. His mother Venkachamma was a religious lady. He lost his father when he was only 15 years old.

      Satyendra Nath Bose


      Satyendra Nath Bose was an outstanding Indian physicist. He is known for his work in Quantum Physics. He is famous for "Bose-Einstein Theory" and a kind of particle in atom has been named after his name as Boson.


      Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar 



      Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was one of the greatest scientists of the 20th century. He did commendable work in astrophysics, physics and applied mathematics. Chandrasekhar was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983.

      Vikram Sarabhai 



      Vikram Sarabhai was one of the greatest scientists of India. He is considered as the Father of the Indian space program. Apart from being a scientist, he was a rare combination of an innovator, industrialist and visionary. 

      Anil Kakodkar 


      Dr Anil Kakodkar is a very distinguished nuclear scientist of India. He is presently the chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission of India (AECI) as well as the Secretary to the Government of India, Department of Atomic Energy.

      APJ Abdul Kalam 


      Apart from being a notable scientist and engineer, Dr APJ Abdul Kalam served as the 11th President of India from the period 2002 to 2007. He is a man of vision, who is always full of ideas aimed at the development of the country and is also often also referred to as the Missile Man of India.

      Birbal Sahni 




      Birbal Sahni was a renowned paleobotanist of India, who studied the fossils of the Indian subcontinent. Also a great geologist, Sahni is credited for establishing the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany at Lucknow in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Born on 14 November in the year 1891 at Behra in the Saharanpur District of West Punjab, Birbal was the third son of Ishwar Devi and Prof. 

      Srinivasa Ramanujan 


      Srinivasa Ramanujan was a mathematician par excellence. He is widely believed to be the greatest mathematician of the 20th Century. Srinivasa Ramanujan made significant contribution to the analytical theory of numbers and worked on elliptic functions, continued fractions, and infinite series.

      Dr. Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar 




      Dr Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar was a distinguished Indian scientist. He was born on 21 February 1894 at Shahpur, which is located in Pakistan in present times. His father passed away sometime after the birth of Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar. As such, he spent his childhood days with his maternal grandfather who was an engineer and it was here that he developed an interest in science and engineering.

      Har Gobind Khorana 


      Har Gobind Khorana is an American molecular biologist born on 9 January 1922 to an Indian Punjabi couple. For his work on the interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in the year 1968.

      Raja Ramanna 



      Handpicked by the founder of India's nuclear program, Dr. Homi Bhabha, Dr. Raja Ramanna was a celebrated physicist and nuclear scientist that India had ever produced. A multifaceted personality, Dr. Raja Ramanna played the roles of a technologist, nuclear physicist, administrator, leader, musician, Sanskrit literature scholar, and philosophy researcher. 

      Ganapathi Thanikaimoni 


      Ganapathi Thanikaimoni, a successful botanist of his days, is remembered till date for his widespread contribution in the field of palynology. His researches and projects not only helped India to make its presence felt on the world stage of botany, it also furthered public relations between two countries.

      Harish-Chandra 


      For those who quiver at the thought of calculations and numerical deductions, unless when counting money, mathematics can be the equivalent of hell on earth. And for such 'math atheists' a mathematician like Harish Chandra can very well seem like a mirage. Harish Chandra is one amongst those few people who often 

      G. N. Ramachandran 


      Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran, popularly referred to as G. N. Ramachandran surely must be included in the list of one of the best scientists that 20th century India had produced. The best known work of G. N. Ramachandran till date is the Ramachandran plot, which the scientist had conceived along with Viswanathan Sasisekharan, to understand the structure of peptides.

      Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis 


      Economic census, population census, agricultural surveys and various other large scale and in depth samples and surveys that have been admired the world over for their scope and accuracy owes its popularity and worldwide acceptance to the grit, determination and genius of one man, Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis.

      Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao 


      Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao was one of the greatest physicists of 20th century India. His work in spectroscopy led to the development of the Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance in Physics. Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao is also known for his long association with the Andhra University in which he served as professor of Physics and subsequently.

      Salim Ali 


      Almost every one of us is interested in watching colorful and distinct birds crossing us. But very few are passionate about studying them in detail. One such man who took extreme interest and excitement in studying birds closely and categorizing them was Dr. Salim Ali. One of the greatest biologists of all times,

      Yellapragada Subbarao 


      "You've probably never heard of Dr. Yellapragada Subba Rao, yet because he lived you may be well and alive today; because he lived you may live longer". A famous adage quoted by American author, Doron K. Antrim, Yellapragada Subbarao was one of those rare people who made several significant contributions,